In Advocacy for Racial Uplift: Booker T. Washington and Malcolm X's Contrasting Political Views Explained Through Autobiographical Evidence

Charlotte Lin

The autobiographies of Booker T. Washington and Malcolm X revealed stark contrasts between two prominent perspectives on paths to achieve racial uplift. Differences included Washington’s promotion of a gradual transition using cooperative adaptation and Malcolm X’s urgent need for radical change, justifying Black separatism as a form of self-defense. Education was another point of disagreement as well, comparing Washington’s advocacy for industrial/vocational education and Malcolm X’s self-educated moral awakening. These drastically different viewpoints were heavily dependent on each figure’s experiences, with Washington’s life course resulting in consistent core beliefs. On the other hand, Malcolm X’s intellectual, moral, and religious evolution produced a strong sense of self and shaped his personal beliefs of empowerment and pride.

Paying attention to the upbringings of Washington and X, we can derive the basis of their core beliefs and methods of approaching change from personal experiences that shaped their personalities. Booker T. Washington was born into slavery; however, he was very near abolition, and his personal experience was considered less terrible than what many others experienced, as he personally claims that his owners were not “especially cruel … as compared with many others” (Washington, 1). While Washington acknowledged living in poor conditions when he was in slavery, he was not abused, and he was consistently surrounded by family. He described one of his worst experiences as being forced to wear a flax shirt; though, his older brother “generously agreed to put it on in my [his] stead and wear it for several days, till it was ‘broken in’”(8). Not only is it telling that he could “scarcely imagine any torture, except, perhaps, the pulling of a tooth, that is equal to that caused by putting on a new flax shirt for the first time” (8), but his mildness towards slavery and complete lack of bitterness or resentment support his view of collaboration and acceptance of his place in society. He also received support from his family being present, actively alleviating his pains, and providing sympathy and encouragement for his educational endeavors; “My mother sympathized with me in my disappointment, and sought to comfort me in all the ways she could, and to help me find a way to learn” (21). Washington’s perseverance in seeking education also eventually led him to academic success, which would support his belief in the importance of patience. He also claimed to blame no one, believing everyone was an “unfortunate victim of the institution” (2). Further evidence of Washington’s lack of resentment includes his claim that “In order to defend and protect the women and children who were left on the plantations when the white males went to war, the slaves would have laid down their lives…members of my race entertain no feelings of bitterness against the whites before and during the war” (9). All of these factors support why Washington would push for a gradual and collective change, as well as industrial education, because he drew evidence from his past successes of collaborative perseverance and vocational learning, believed he represented his entire race (or at least did not thoroughly consider possibilities otherwise), and had faith in the souls of others since his sufferings in slavery were not notably severe.

While Malcolm X did not experience slavery firsthand, his childhood traumas and later self-education shaped strong beliefs that stemmed from Black separatism, nationalism, and a hatred towards the white race. His father was murdered by “resentful whites”, and his widowed, overloaded mother, in a system built against Black people, suffered mentally, and their family fell apart (X, 1859). The unraveling of X’s family left him with little support, largely contrasting with Washington’s experience. Astray into a life of crime that ended up in incarceration, X experienced a unique exploration of self-identity that was entirely self-educated. By spending his surplus of stagnant prison time learning to read, write, and educate himself, he discovered the Nation of Islam and underwent an intellectual and moral awakening. In comparison to Washington, whose beliefs and sense of self-identity remained consistent throughout his life, Malcolm X's unconventional route to self-education ended up transforming his view on life and of self-perception. The effects on his identity can be seen by his extensive reading of historical literature, where he learned about slavery, saying, “I never will forget how shocked I was when I began reading about slavery’s total horror” (1865).  

His continued research exposed him to the deep-rooted Black history that exists, introducing a new depth to his self-identity and cultural pride he had never known. However, he also learned about the patterns of white oppression, expressing that “Book after book showed me [him] how the white man had brought upon the world’s black, brown, red, and yellow peoples every variety of the sufferings of exploitation” (1866). The repeated dominance of white supremacy, in addition to the repression of black people, furthered X’s hatred as he said, “the white man is the devil” (1871). The lack of education and awareness of black history infuriated X, saying, “It’s a crime, the lie that has been told to a generation of black men and white men both. Little innocent black children, born of parents who believed that their race had no history. Little black children seeing, before they could talk, that their parents considered themselves inferior … ashamed of being black,” however, he ends with “But the truth is pouring out now,” inferring his newfound knowledge and cultural pride. Knowing this disservice had been progressing for so long, X showed urgency in the need for radical change, and differed from Washington’s patient, moderate seeking of racial uplift and integration. Malcolm X, on another level of contradiction, also advocated for Black separatism, not integration, which makes sense given his heavily demonstrated unforgiveness towards white people. As Malcolm X learned about African history, a sense of Black superiority also arose, saying he would “send a bunch of black students off digging in Africa for more, more and more proof of the black race’s historical greatness … practically every week, we read about some great new find from Africa’s lost civilizations. All that’s new is the white science’s attitude … history has been so ‘whitened’ by the white man … the ancient civilizations of the black man have been buried on the Black Continent all the time” (1869). X admitted that during his early life in prison, he disliked other black convicts over white men, but after learning Elijah Muhammad’s teachings and educating himself on black history, he felt immense shame. Taking accountability for the feelings of guilt motivated Malcolm X to share what he had learned, saying he “began to catch every chance I [he] could to recruit for Mr. Muhammad” (1870). 

The radical transformation of Malcolm X shaped his advocacy for an equally radical movement, but on a much larger scale. Conversely, Washington’s gradual climb to success furthered his emphasis on incremental steps towards collective progress. Malcolm X’s autobiography demonstrated heavy turbulence throughout his life, which shaped his political beliefs and ambitious drive for extreme radical transformations. His form of self-guided education and the abundance of time allowed his discovery of extensive black history, learning about his own culture, and further understanding the incredible disservice that has been done to black people. While Booker T. Washington was also well educated, his autobiography proved a much more consistent path, leading to a steadier and optimistic perspective on racial uplift as a gradual shift. Although both black advocates shared a goal of overall racial uplift, their opinions on the urgency and method of achieving that goal widely differed due to unique life experiences that shaped their politically significant beliefs.

 

Balancing Optimism and Exposing Injustice: Richard Wright and Lorraine Hansberry's Different Forms of Literary Protest

                                                               Charlotte Lin

Wright and Hansberry both use literature as a form of protest, but differ in their methods of delivering their message to the audience. By humanizing Black characters and narrating events of racial oppression, both authors call attention to systemic constraints on freedom, highlighting the need for change. However, Wright’s writing style focuses on demonstrating the weight of societal injustices towards Black people through a naturalistic and demoralizing story, while Hansberry promotes the need for racial equality by showing realistic circumstances and examples of modern societal failure. A Raisin in the Sun uses liberal realism to emphasize agency, hope for growth, and freedom of choice, which also correlates with the progress of the Civil Rights Movement at the time. Down By the Riverside reveals inevitable suffering caused by societal corruption through socialist-driven naturalism, taking a different, perhaps hopelessly portrayed approach to impactfully expose the world’s injustices.

Down By the Riverside’s narration style focuses on the uncontrollable effects of nature and the lack of liberties for Mann and his family, forcing them to act and adapt out of survival. The characters are not only trapped by the flood but also by the social expectations and structural oppression (potentially even more so). This emphasizes the need for drastic systemic reformation, and considering how severe the natural disaster is depicted, it is a powerfully dramatic way to deliver Wright’s message. The story includes little character development and blatantly illustrates the misfortune predominantly caused by an institution built against African Americans. While the flood plays a large role in Mann and his family’s struggles, the characters likely would have had much stronger chances of survival if they hadn’t needed to fight against not just nature, but the society pitted against them as well. The disheartening progression of pure suffering and the eventual demoralizing ending of Mann’s journey carry through to expose America’s systemic failure and send a cry for help and societal transformation. In addition, the development of Mann’s story also proves to be out of his control, further demonstrating the oppressive economy and how society is stacked against people like Mann. Forced to act out of survival, they are put in impossible positions and face moral dilemmas (need to steal a boat, or shoot at someone). However, each decision ultimately produces unfavorable and destructive outcomes, showing that their fates were never in their hands, that a hopeful future never existed for them. This sense of powerlessness, despite the characters’ incredible efforts, is used to expose the corrupted system and prove that the adversities of Black people are not due to their strength or morals, but a crushingly inescapable social injustice.

In contrast, although A Raisin in the Sun’s overall emotional development goes through dispiriting lows as well, it evidently ends on a higher note that looks towards the future. While the play also protests the unequal social structure, it empowers the Black community and provides hope for liberal advancements. Hansberry develops circumstances that highlight different personalities and dreams, creating a work of literature that connects with a wide audience, humanizing African Americans on a large scale and thereby bringing to attention the need and deservedness of racial equality. A Raisin in the Sun also presents challenges caused by economic injustice, but inspires social progress through the characters, who demonstrate courage and resilience. A clear separation from Wright’s naturalistic work, Hansberry’s writing is more realistic and relatable. Although the constraints of discrimination still heavily challenge the characters, the Younger family can persevere and control their situations to an extent, making important decisions that shape their destinies. This ability to make meaningful differences in their own lives and choose to work towards liberal progress and gradual equality demonstrates a different kind of empowerment and hope for freedom from overly restrictive external forces. Examples could include Walter’s initially irresponsible choice with the money, and how, while it harms him and his family, it eventually plays a significant role in his maturing, which shows in a different decision he makes at the end by rejecting Mr. Lindner's offer. Hansberry shows realistic consequences of institutional barriers, but the agency shown by the characters creates opportunity for the future, and encourages looking towards radical change with hope.

Both narratives humanize characters and challenge stereotypes of African Americans, and while Wright uses extreme conditions to stress the dire need for major, structural renovation, Hansberry accentuates the impacts of societal oppression through creating realistic and understandable situations. Wright’s pre-Civil Rights work and Hansberry’s mid-Civil Rights writing have very different portrayals, which is relevant to the settings they were written in. By comparing and contrasting the two authors’ forms of activism, we can track the evolution of protest and methods of activism. Before the movement, Wright’s leftist view urged a complete societal reconstruction by studying and emphasizing the failures of the systems that existed at the time. During the height of the Civil Rights Movement, Hansberry’s realism promoted faith and collective action for equality. There is a presence of optimism in Hansberry’s writing that is not seen in Wright’s, and the characters' aspiration for radical transformation as a unified family at the end of the story reflects the collective push in society for justice and emphasis on hopeful coalition during the Civil Rights Era. Hansberry uses realistic literature to have a collaborative vision for a gradual, hopeful progression towards societal integration and forward-moving equality, while Wright advocates for a drastic reconstruction of societal structures by powerfully depicting the irredeemable state of society in a harsh, naturalistic narrative.

Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl/Boy: How Sexual Objectification of Women Separated Their Experiences from those of Men

Charlotte Lin

The experiences of slavery portrayed by Harriet Jacobs in Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl and Booker T. Washington’s Up from Slavery are distinctly unique, and in some aspects, incomparable in facets that stem from expectations in society as a woman versus a man. Washington’s writing depicted his main sufferings as unequal opportunities, specifically in education. There was a presence of laborious exploitation and people who took advantage of him; however, he never felt fears quite like Jacobs’, and he stated that one of the worst parts of his slave life was wearing painful clothing. Washington never had to worry about being sexually abused or having his body exploited in ways that women commonly faced. Although this was not the case for all men, both during slavery and modern-day society, women are constantly more targeted and subject to sexual violence, which brings a whole other level of trauma and abuse. Even though the two authors lived at separate times and experienced the slave system a bit differently, we can compare significantly impactful elements of slavery experiences that would only be linked to views revolving around gender constructs. This information is not to minimize the trials of male slavery, as there were also other expectations of men that were not required of women. However, it is still important to realize the differences and the lasting impacts of gender roles in society, represented through years of slavery.

Men were often assigned to do heavier labor duties and valued for their physical strength. As seen in Washington’s book, this proved to put the young boy at a disadvantage due to his smaller physique. On the other hand, there was a different standard for women, who were not only expected to perform regular field labor but also housework and childcare. In chapter five, “The Trials of Girlhood”, Jacobs expressed her sorrow at seeing two girls playing together. Two sisters raised by the same mother, except one was white and the other was her black slave. It was extremely common and expected of enslaved women to care for and parent their masters’ children, even if they had their own to look after as well. This began since their infancy, and slaves were also used to breastfeed their owners’ babies, since it was convenient for the masters and allowed the white mothers more mobility ("Exploitation through Reproductive Labor"). While men were physically, laboriously exploited for jobs that required immense strength, which could be dangerous and jeopardize their safety, in addition to common overworking labor, women were expected to act as mother figures and household caregivers. Besides working expectations, though, women were also used in other ways that less commonly occurred to men.

We can recall that a huge part of Jacobs’ struggles revolved around mental and physical abuse and isolation, as well as her status as a conventionally attractive woman. A significant theme that impacted how women were viewed was their sexuality, or “purity”. Virginity was an important label that mostly only mattered for women, which is a double standard that is still relevant in modern-day society as well. Purity culture believes in sexual abstinence as a positive trait; women's involvement in sexual activity is frowned upon and morally shaming. However, enslaved women were often unavoidably and forcibly sexually assaulted, or consequently punished if they refused sexual advances from a man (often their master). As depicted in Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, the results of this morally demeaning belief around female sexual status caused unimaginable pains, both physical and mental. Not only were their bodies violated and taken advantage of, but society had also ingrained shame into the women, even if they were not at fault. They were loathed by the men’s wives and looked down on by peers, which risked confidence in their self-worth and challenged emotional stability. 

Youth was also viewed as desirable, and many young, black, enslaved women were raped or sexually abused by their masters, viewed as objects that could be employed in common slave labor, but also to fulfill lustful desires or desires for control. Their reproductive organs could be exploited, especially because slavery was inherited, and this could economically benefit the owners. Heavy birthing pressure on women also took a toll on their bodies, and combined with constant labor, enslaved women were subject to seeing the doctors very frequently. Although slaveholders wanted to make the most out of their slaves, they had to keep them alive so as not to lose “property”. Remember, slaves were typically viewed as mere calculations for maximum economic profit, not as humans. Punishments were regularly performed with strategies to avoid accidentally killing the slaves, and also to preserve the women’s reproductive organs. In addition, doctors also viewed enslaved patients as experimental and status-increasing opportunities. The slaves never had a say in how much they were willing to risk themselves for treatment, as their bodies did not belong to them, and so doctors could freely use them for testing to further the development of medicine, as well as gain prestige in their field. Furthermore, the racialization of Black bodies as “strong and robust” caused doctors to overlook Black people’s pain sensitivity, and often didn’t bother to use anesthesia. The exploitation of women’s bodies as a vessel for labor services and an object to be used made them more susceptible than men to severe physical and mental traumas ("Exploitation through Reproductive Labor").

All victims of slavery were unforgivably robbed of their rights and quality of life; however, gender roles played a significant part in how people were treated, causing differences that could strongly affect individual perceptions and opinions. In Booker T. Washington’s writing, he was generously hopeful, as he recalled that everyone, both slaves and slaveowners, was only “victims of the institution”, and held very little resentment from his life as a slave boy. His expressed point of view was molded by his personality and efforts to be favored by wide audiences, but perhaps most importantly, his enslaved experience, in which the duration and severity should be accounted for. Although Washington’s experiences would have naturally differed from the lives of other enslaved people, it was especially less horrific and abusive than those of most women, such as Harriet Jacobs’, whose trials were not uncommonly similar to those of many female slaves at the time. Jacob’s story, while still humbly expressed, showed no signs of forgiveness after the torture she had suffered. Not because she was harsher or less forgivable, but because her writing choices were also shaped by personal experiences. Experiences of incomparable devastation that caused sustained mental and physical damage, due to events primarily resulting from gender inequality and sexual objectification. Both autobiographies were valid in reflecting different slave experiences, but it is important to acknowledge the effect of gender-based treatment and expectations that heavily changed the lives of millions of slaves.

Works Cited

“Exploitation through Reproductive Labor · Hidden Voices: Enslaved Women in the Lowcountry and U.S. South · Lowcountry Digital History Initiative.” Lowcountry Digital History Initiative, ldhi.library.cofc.edu/exhibits/show/hidden-voices/enslaved-women-and-slaveholder/reproductive-exploitation. Accessed 15 Sept. 2025.